Artificial Intelligence (AI) is continuously reshaping the world, altering how we communicate, work, and learn. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the education sector, where AI’s revolutionary influence is paving the way for unprecedented learning and development opportunities. But what precisely is the role of AI in education? What are its benefits, and how does it impact learning and development?

The Role of AI in Education

Artificial intelligence (AI) is revolutionising education by personalising learning experiences, streamlining administrative tasks, and enhancing accessibility. By utilising AI, educational institutions can move away from traditional teaching models and cater to the unique needs and learning styles of individual students. AI-powered systems identify knowledge gaps, recommend personalised resources, and provide tailored feedback, leading to improved student engagement and academic success. 

Additionally, AI automates administrative tasks like grading, freeing up educators’ time for more meaningful interactions with students. It also enables data-driven decision-making through predictive analytics, helping institutions allocate resources efficiently and plan strategically. AI also plays a crucial role in promoting inclusivity by offering personalised support to students with disabilities.

Potential Challenges and Ethical Considerations

Despite these benefits, integrating AI into classrooms isn’t without challenges. There are concerns about data privacy, equity of access to AI-powered tools, and the potential for AI to devalue the role of teachers. It’s crucial that educators, policymakers, and technologists work together to address these issues.

We must ensure that AI is used ethically and that student data is securely protected. Policies and infrastructure should be in place to ensure that all students, regardless of their socio-economic status, can access and benefit from AI in education. And above all, we must remember that AI is a tool to aid teachers, not replace them. The human touch will always be essential in education.

What is Chat GPT?

Chat GPT (Generative Pretrained Transformer) can be described as an advanced language model powered by artificial intelligence (AI). It is not just a software or a platform, but rather a sophisticated AI system designed to generate human-like responses and engage in natural language conversations. It leverages deep learning techniques to understand and generate text based on the input it receives.

Developed by the Artfiicial Intelligence Research Organisation called ‘OpenAI’, Chat GPT has gained popularity due to its impressive language generation abilities. It’s a part of the broader GPT (Generative Pretrained Transformers) family of models, which use machine learning techniques to understand and generate human-like text.

Chat GPT is trained using a method called unsupervised learning, where the model learns to predict the next word in a sentence based on the words that came before it. This learning is done on a large corpus of internet text, but it’s important to note that GPT does not know specifics about which documents were in its training set or have access to any personal data unless explicitly provided in the conversation.

The technology is capable of understanding context, maintaining a conversation over several turns, and can generate coherent, contextually appropriate responses. This makes it particularly well-suited for a wide range of applications, from drafting emails and writing articles to tutoring in various subjects and even generating creative content like poetry or short stories.

The core functionality of Chat GPT is based on receiving a “prompt”, which can be a question, statement, or any text, and generating a response. This concept of ‘prompting’ is a fundamental aspect of how one interacts with GPT-based models, and effective prompting, known as ‘prompt engineering’, can greatly influence the utility and relevance of the model’s output.

In the context of education, Chat GPT opens up new avenues for teaching and learning. It can be used as a tool to enhance classroom instruction, assist in homework, provide tutoring in various subjects, and much more. However, the application of Chat GPT in education is as much an art as it is a science, and it requires understanding the capabilities and limitations of the technology, as well as mastering the skill of prompt engineering.

Practical Applications of Chat GPT in Education

The application of Chat GPT in the educational sector presents immense possibilities, extending the boundaries of traditional learning methods while providing novel ways to engage and educate students. Here are some potential applications:

• Educational Support: Chat GPT can serve as a 24/7 educational support system, addressing students’ queries outside of school hours, helping with homework, and providing additional explanations on difficult topics.

• Personalised Learning: Every student learns differently. With effective prompt engineering, Chat GPT can provide customised learning experiences, adapting to each student’s pace and style of learning, and focusing on their areas of interest or struggle.

• Teacher’s Aid: Beyond supporting students, Chat GPT can assist teachers by automating routine tasks, like grading multiple-choice quizzes or providing feedback on common errors in assignments. It can also suggest lesson plans or provide additional content to enrich the curriculum.

• Creative Learning: Chat GPT can stimulate creativity among students. For instance, in a creative writing assignment, students can use Chat GPT as a brainstorming tool to generate ideas, plotlines, or character descriptions.

• Language Learning: Language teachers can use Chat GPT as a tool for students to practice reading comprehension and conversation in different languages. Its ability to generate contextually relevant responses can provide real-time conversational practice.

• Learning through Games: Chat GPT can be used to design educational games or role-plays. This introduces an element of fun into learning, making education an enjoyable experience for students.

• Professional Development for Educators: Educators can use Chat GPT to stay updated on the latest educational trends, research, and teaching strategies. They can also engage in simulated conversations around various educational scenarios for professional development.

These are just a few potential applications. The possibilities are limited only by our creativity and understanding of how to effectively communicate with the model through well-crafted prompts. 

Importance of Prompt Engineering

To harness these aforementioned possibilities, it’s critical to understand and master the art of prompt engineering.

Prompt engineering is a vital aspect of leveraging AI models like Chat GPT in education. It involves designing and fine-tuning the input prompts given to the AI model to optimise its output and ensure the generation of meaningful and contextually appropriate responses.

The importance of effective prompt engineering cannot be overstated for several reasons:

• Better Outputs: Well-crafted prompts can guide the model to produce better and more relevant outputs. It’s similar to asking the right questions to get the most useful answers.
• Maximising Utility: Each AI model, including Chat GPT, has its strengths and weaknesses. Effective prompts can guide the AI to play to its strengths, delivering the most value.
• Mitigating Risks: Well-engineered prompts can also help in preventing the model from generating inappropriate or biased responses, thereby minimising potential risks.
• Efficient Learning: In the context of education, prompt engineering can make learning more efficient. A well-thought-out prompt can lead to more accurate explanations, engaging discussions, and effective learning outcomes.
• Enhancing Creativity: Lastly, crafting prompts is a creative process that can stimulate thinking in new directions. For educators, this skill can lead to the development of innovative teaching strategies that incorporate AI.

Understanding prompt engineering is the first step towards realising the full potential of Chat GPT and similar AI models in education. With the right prompts, Chat GPT can serve as a powerful tool to enhance teaching and learning, offer personalised education, and transform classrooms into interactive learning environments. 

It’s important to note that despite its impressive capabilities, Chat GPT doesn’t understand text in the way humans do. It doesn’t have beliefs, opinions, or emotions. It generates responses based on patterns it learned during training and doesn’t have access to personal data about individuals unless explicitly provided in the conversation. 

Crafting and Refining Prompts

Crafting effective prompts is both an art and a science, requiring a clear understanding of your objectives and iterative refinement to achieve the desired results. Here are some steps and strategies to guide you in this process:

1. Set the Stage with Context

Context is critical in guiding Chat GPT’s responses. Clearly defining the setting, characters, or background information in the prompt can help steer the model’s output. For example, when asking Chat GPT to explain a scientific concept, providing context about the target audience (e.g., “Explain photosynthesis to a five-year-old”) can significantly influence the response.

2. Be Explicit

Chat GPT responds well to explicit instructions. Don’t shy away from being specific about the format, style, or content you want in the output. For example, if you’re looking for a response in bullet points or a poem in a specific style, specify this in your prompt.

3. Try Different Approaches

There’s often more than one way to craft a prompt for a given task. If the initial prompt doesn’t yield the desired results, try changing the phrasing, adding more context, or giving more explicit instructions.

4. Employ Iterative Refinement

Prompt engineering often involves an iterative process of testing and refining. After crafting an initial prompt, test it with Chat GPT, evaluate the output, and refine the prompt based on the results. This process might need to be repeated several times to achieve the desired output.

5. Incorporate System Message

A system message is a message at the beginning of a conversation that sets the behaviour of the AI. For example, a system message might instruct the AI to speak like Shakespeare or to explain concepts at a high school level. This technique can be effective in guiding the model’s behaviour throughout the conversation.

6. Leverage Temperature and Max Tokens

Apart from crafting the prompt, you can also adjust the ‘temperature’ and ‘max tokens’ settings in Chat GPT. ‘Temperature’ controls the randomness of the model’s responses (lower values make the output more deterministic), and ‘max tokens’ limits the length of the response. Adjusting these parameters can help tailor the output to your needs.

Remember, the goal of prompt engineering is not to control every word of Chat GPT’s response, but to effectively guide the model in generating a helpful, relevant, and appropriate output. In the next section, we will delve into practical examples and case studies of prompt engineering in educational settings.

Practical Examples of Chat GPT and Case Studies

We delve here into practical examples and case studies of prompt engineering with Chat GPT in various educational settings. These examples demonstrate how educators can craft and refine prompts to harness the capabilities of Chat GPT effectively.

Example 1: Teaching Historical Events

Suppose you’re teaching a lesson about the American Civil War and want Chat GPT to generate a concise summary suitable for middle school students. An effective prompt might look like this:

“Can you explain the causes and main events of the American Civil War in simple terms suitable for a middle school student?”

Example 2: Math Tutoring

For a high school student struggling with calculus, a tutor might want Chat GPT to explain the concept of integration. Here’s a prompt that could work:

“Can you explain the concept of integration in calculus as if you’re teaching a high school student who understands basic algebra and differentiation?”

Example 3: Language Learning

A language teacher using Chat GPT to help students practice their Spanish conversation skills might use a prompt like this:

“Can you carry on a conversation in Spanish with a beginner language learner about their daily routine?”

Example 4: Creative Writing

For an English teacher encouraging students to explore creative writing, Chat GPT can be used to generate writing prompts or story ideas. Here’s an example:

“Generate a creative writing prompt that involves a mysterious forest, a lost child, and a talking animal.”

Each of these examples demonstrates the principles of prompt engineering, including understanding the task, knowing the model, setting context, and being explicit in your instructions.

Interactive Learning and Tutoring

One of the most powerful applications of Chat GPT in education is its ability to provide interactive learning experiences and personalised tutoring for students. Here’s how it can be leveraged:

1. Personalised Learning

Chat GPT can be programmed to respond to student queries in real-time, providing personalised responses based on the student’s current level of understanding. This can help create a more personalised and engaging learning experience.

Prompt Example: “Can you explain the Pythagorean theorem to a student who is just starting to learn geometry?”

2. Homework Help

Chat GPT can assist students with their homework by providing explanations, step-by-step solutions, and helpful tips.

Prompt Example: “A student is stuck on a math problem: ‘Solve for x in the equation 2x + 3 = 9’. Can you provide a step-by-step solution?”

3. Practice Exercises

Chat GPT can generate practice exercises in various subjects, helping students to consolidate their understanding and improve their skills.

Prompt Example: “Can you generate five practice questions for a student learning multiplication of two-digit numbers?”

4. Language Learning

Chat GPT can support language learning by carrying out conversations in different languages, correcting language errors, and providing translations.

Prompt Example: “Can you carry on a conversation in French with a beginner language learner who wants to practice ordering food in a restaurant?”

5. Concept Clarification

Sometimes students might struggle with understanding certain concepts. Chat GPT can be used to clarify these concepts in a simple and intuitive way.

Prompt Example: “Can you explain the concept of photosynthesis in a simple way for a student who is finding it difficult to understand?”

By using Chat GPT as a tool for interactive learning and tutoring, educators can offer their students a more engaging, personalised, and supportive learning experience. The key is to craft effective prompts that guide Chat GPT to provide outputs that are helpful, relevant, and suitable for the student’s level of understanding. The next sections will explore more applications of Chat GPT in education, and how prompt engineering can enhance these applications.

Content Generation and Learning Materials

Chat GPT can be a valuable tool for educators in the generation of educational content and learning materials. Its ability to generate diverse types of content can ease the burden on educators and allow them to deliver more varied and engaging lessons.

1. Lesson Plans and Summaries

Chat GPT can help in the creation of lesson plans, providing educators with a clear structure and key points to address in a given lesson.

Prompt Example: “Design a lesson plan for teaching the water cycle to a group of 7th grade students.”

2. Quiz and Test Questions

Creating quizzes and test questions can be a time-consuming task. Chat GPT can assist in this process, generating questions across a variety of subjects and difficulty levels.

Prompt Example: “Generate five multiple-choice questions on the topic of World War II for a high school history class.”

3. Explainer Texts and Diagram Descriptions

Chat GPT can generate detailed explainer texts for various topics and provide descriptions or explanations for diagrams, graphs, and other visual aids.

Prompt Example: “Describe the process illustrated by a diagram of the human digestive system.”

4. Creative Writing Prompts

For creative writing exercises, Chat GPT can provide unique and engaging prompts to stimulate students’ imagination and encourage them to think creatively.

Prompt Example: “Generate a creative writing prompt that involves time travel and a mysterious ancient artifact.”

5. Reading Comprehension Exercises

Chat GPT can create reading comprehension exercises complete with passages and corresponding questions to test students’ understanding.

Prompt Example: “Create a short reading passage about the life cycle of a butterfly and five corresponding comprehension questions.”

By leveraging the content generation capabilities of Chat GPT, educators can create a diverse range of learning materials efficiently, enriching their lessons and stimulating student engagement. The success of this, however, largely depends on the educators’ ability to craft effective prompts that clearly communicate their requirements to Chat GPT.

Assistive Tool for Educators and Administrators

Chat GPT is not only a powerful tool for enhancing student learning experiences, but it can also serve as a valuable assistant for educators and school administrators. Here are some ways it can be applied:

1. Administrative Tasks

Chat GPT can assist with routine administrative tasks such as drafting emails, creating schedules, or generating reports.

Prompt Example: “Draft an email to parents informing them about the upcoming parent-teacher conference and the importance of their participation.”

2. Research and Information Retrieval

Educators often need to keep up with the latest developments in their field. Chat GPT can provide summaries of research papers, overviews of specific topics, or comparisons of different educational theories.

Prompt Example: “Provide a summary of the key findings from the research paper titled ‘The Impact of Interactive Learning on Student Engagement’.”

3. Grading Assistance

While Chat GPT can’t fully grade assignments due to its inability to understand subjective quality, it can assist in the grading process. For example, it can generate answer keys or help in grading objective-type questions.

Prompt Example: “Generate an answer key for the following multiple-choice quiz on the topic of cellular biology.”

4. Professional Development

Chat GPT can help educators in their professional development by providing information about educational strategies, teaching methodologies, and classroom management techniques.

Prompt Example: “Explain the concept of ‘differentiated instruction’ and how it can be implemented in a diverse classroom.”

5. Community Engagement

Chat GPT can assist in creating newsletters, announcements, or posts for school websites and social media, helping to foster community engagement.

Prompt Example: “Draft a newsletter for the school community highlighting the successes of the past month, including academic achievements, sporting events, and upcoming activities.”

Through these applications, Chat GPT can serve as a versatile assistant for educators and administrators, taking over routine tasks, providing valuable information, and supporting professional development. Effective prompt engineering will be crucial in guiding Chat GPT to deliver the required results in each of these contexts.

Enhancing Remote Learning and Homeschooling

The advent of remote learning and homeschooling has created a demand for digital tools that can assist in providing quality education outside the traditional classroom setting. Chat GPT, with its versatile capabilities, can serve as a powerful tool to enhance remote learning and homeschooling.

1. Asynchronous Learning Support

In asynchronous remote learning, where students and teachers interact at different times, Chat GPT can be used to provide instant responses to student queries, giving the feel of a live interaction.

Prompt Example: “A student studying independently asks, ‘What is the significance of the Magna Carta?'”

2. Self-guided Learning

Chat GPT can support self-guided learning by providing explanations, generating practice exercises, and answering questions across various subjects, allowing students to learn at their own pace.

Prompt Example: “Explain the concept of gravity to a student learning independently.”

3. Interactive Learning Experiences

Chat GPT can be used to create interactive learning experiences, such as guided reading exercises, interactive stories, or role-play scenarios, making learning more engaging for students.

Prompt Example: “Create an interactive story where the student has to make decisions as an explorer traveling through the Amazon rainforest.”

4. Personal Tutor

Chat GPT can serve as a personal tutor for students, assisting with homework, explaining concepts, and providing additional learning resources.

Prompt Example: “A student is struggling with an algebra problem: ‘Solve for x in the equation 3x + 2 = 11’. Can you provide a step-by-step solution?”

5. Parental Assistance

For parents who are homeschooling their children, Chat GPT can serve as a valuable assistant, helping in the creation of lesson plans, generating educational activities, and providing guidance on teaching various subjects.

Prompt Example: “A parent needs to teach a lesson on photosynthesis to their child. Generate a simple and engaging lesson plan.”

By using Chat GPT to support remote learning and homeschooling, educators and parents can provide students with a rich, personalised, and engaging learning experience. As always, the key lies in the effective engineering of prompts that accurately convey the task at hand to the AI model.

Dealing with Misinformation and Inaccuracies

As powerful as Chat GPT is, it’s not infallible and can sometimes generate responses that are inaccurate or misleading. Here are some strategies for dealing with this challenge:

1. Verification and Fact-Checking

Whenever possible, it’s important to verify the information provided by Chat GPT. This is especially crucial when the output is intended for educational materials or critical responses. Various online resources can be used to cross-check facts and figures.

2. Encouraging Critical Thinking

Encourage students to approach the responses from Chat GPT critically, cross-referencing with other sources and questioning the information they receive. This not only ensures accuracy but also helps develop important critical thinking skills.

3. Regular Model Updates

Stay updated with newer versions of the model as they are likely to offer improved accuracy. OpenAI continually works on refining the models, addressing limitations, and improving performance.

4. Crafting Clear and Explicit Prompts

Carefully crafted prompts that provide sufficient context and detail can help reduce the likelihood of misinformation. As already mentioned, being explicit and setting the right context in your prompts can guide the model to generate more accurate responses.

5. Understanding Limitations

It’s important to understand the limitations of Chat GPT and not to rely on it for sensitive or critical tasks beyond its capacity. For example, it shouldn’t be used to provide medical advice or answer legal queries.

Overcoming the challenge of misinformation and inaccuracies requires a combination of effective prompt engineering, critical evaluation, verification practices, and an understanding of the model’s limitations. As educators, fostering an environment of critical thinking and active learning can turn this challenge into an opportunity for students to improve their information literacy skills. In the next section, we’ll discuss the ethical considerations when using AI like Chat GPT in an educational setting.

Evolving Role of Teachers in AI-Integrated Classrooms

As artificial intelligence becomes more integrated into education, the role of teachers is expected to evolve in several ways:

1. From Information Providers to Facilitators

As AI tools like Chat GPT can deliver vast amounts of information, teachers will likely shift from being primary information providers to facilitators, guiding students on how to critically evaluate, synthesize, and apply knowledge.

2. Focusing on Soft Skills

With AI handling more of the fact-based learning, teachers can focus on fostering soft skills in students, such as critical thinking, creativity, emotional intelligence, leadership, and collaboration – skills that AI cannot teach.

3. Personalised Education

AI tools can help teachers provide a more personalised learning experience, catering to the individual needs, abilities, and interests of each student. Teachers can use AI outputs to understand students’ learning patterns, strengths, and areas that need improvement, and tailor their teaching methods accordingly.

4. Lifelong Learning

With AI constantly evolving, teachers will need to become lifelong learners, staying updated with the latest AI technologies, understanding their potential and limitations, and learning how to effectively integrate them into their teaching.

5. Ethics and Digital Citizenship

Teachers will play a crucial role in educating students about the ethical implications of AI, data privacy, and digital citizenship. They will guide students on how to use AI responsibly and safely.

In summary, the integration of AI in education doesn’t mean the replacement of teachers. Instead, it will enhance the role of teachers, allowing them to focus more on personal, creative, and ethical aspects of education, thereby fostering a more holistic, engaging, and beneficial learning environment for students. In the next section, we will explore the potential advancements in AI technologies for education.

Ethical and Societal Implications of AI in Education

While AI holds great potential to transform education, it’s also essential to consider the ethical and societal implications:

1. Data Privacy and Security

With more advanced AI technologies, more data about students’ learning behaviors, progress, and personal attributes will likely be generated and used. Ensuring this data is handled responsibly, securely, and with respect for privacy will be a major concern.

2. Equality of Access

As AI technologies become more integrated into education, ensuring equal access will be crucial. This includes addressing the digital divide, making sure students from all backgrounds and locations can benefit from AI-enhanced education.

3. AI Bias and Fairness

AI models can inadvertently perpetuate biases present in their training data. Ensuring AI in education is fair and doesn’t reinforce stereotypes or prejudices is a significant ethical concern.

4. Autonomy and Dependency

While AI can help personalise education, there is also a risk of over-reliance, which could undermine students’ autonomy and ability to learn independently. Striking the right balance will be a key challenge.

5. The Changing Nature of Work

With AI and automation impacting the job market, education needs to prepare students for a changing work landscape. This includes teaching skills that are uniquely human and cannot be automated, as well as fostering adaptability and lifelong learning.

6. Public Trust and Acceptance

Integrating AI into education will require public trust and acceptance. This includes transparent communication about how AI is used, addressing concerns, and involving stakeholders (including students, parents, and teachers) in decision-making.

While the future of AI in education holds exciting possibilities, it also presents complex ethical and societal challenges that require thoughtful consideration and proactive management. 

Key Takeaways and Final Remarks

As we conclude this exploration into prompt engineering with Chat GPT for teachers, let’s reflect on some of the key takeaways:

1. AI as a Tool, Not a Replacement

Artificial Intelligence, and in particular language models like Chat GPT, are powerful tools that can aid in education, but they are not replacements for teachers. The human touch, emotional intelligence, and personal interaction that teachers bring to the classroom are irreplaceable.

2. The Art of Prompt Engineering

Creating effective prompts is a skill that requires understanding the workings of the model, carefully crafting the prompts, and iterating based on the responses. It’s a process of co-creation between the human and the AI, with the potential to produce highly tailored educational content.

3. Importance of Verification and Critical Thinking

While Chat GPT is a powerful tool, it can produce inaccuracies and misinformation. It’s essential to verify the information and encourage students to approach AI outputs critically. This aids not only in avoiding misinformation but also fosters critical thinking skills in students.

4. The Ethical Implications

The use of AI in education comes with important ethical considerations, including data privacy, fairness, digital citizenship, and the mitigation of AI-produced harms or errors.

5. The Future of AI in Education

AI in education holds exciting potential. Advanced personalisation, real-time analytics, intelligent tutoring systems, and more interactive learning experiences are on the horizon. However, realising this potential responsibly will require addressing significant ethical and societal challenges.

The  power of AI in education is far-reaching. While we must navigate challenges and ethical considerations carefully, the potential benefits are undeniable. As educators, we have an exciting opportunity to leverage AI to create an enriching, personalised, and effective educational experience. The classroom of the future isn’t a distant reality; it’s here now, and AI is a pivotal part of it. As we embrace this technology, we’re not just teaching our students; we’re preparing them for a future where AI will be an integral part of their lives. With careful implementation and thoughtful stewardship, we can ensure that AI is a force for good in education.

As one of the most common Special Educational Needs, managing ADHD is a key challenge all educators face sooner or later. In my journey as an educator, working with children with ADHD has always presented unique challenges and rewards. When I picked up Dr. Russell Barkley’s ‘Managing ADHD in School: The Best Evidence-Based Methods for Teachers‘, I found a resource that truly resonated with my experiences and offered practical, evidence-based strategies that I could directly apply in my classroom.

Barkley’s book starts with a nuanced understanding of ADHD, going beyond the typical symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity. It echoed my experiences with my students, who often grapple with executive function issues that impact their ability to organise tasks, manage time, and regulate emotions. Barkley’s empathetic and detailed exploration of ADHD validated my observations and helped debunk several misconceptions I had encountered about the condition.

One of the standout features of the book is the emphasis on practical strategies. I appreciated the range of interventions Barkley suggested, from modifying the classroom environment to implementing behavioural interventions. I found the idea of using a token system particularly effective, as I have seen similar systems used in my school with encouraging results. Barkley’s suggestion to provide immediate feedback resonated with me, as I’ve noticed the significant impact of this approach on my students’ behaviour.

Moreover, Barkley’s book helped me refine my strategies around academic modifications. For instance, breaking down assignments into smaller parts is something I had been practising, but Barkley’s insights helped me understand why this approach is effective for children with ADHD. He also suggested allowing movement breaks and using assistive technology, strategies I am eager to incorporate into my teaching methods.

The section on social skills training was eye opening. I’ve seen firsthand how children with ADHD sometimes are challenged with social interactions, and Barkley’s emphasis on explicit teaching of social norms and practices gave me a fresh perspective. His idea of role-playing scenarios is something I plan to integrate into my classroom routine.

Finally, Barkley’s emphasis on collaboration reinforced my belief in the power of teamwork in addressing ADHD. His advice about fostering strong relationships with parents and other professionals aligns with my experiences, where open communication and consistent support from a team have been key to helping my students succeed.

This book is an great blend of evidence-based research, practical strategies, and insightful observations that truly resonates with my experiences as an educator. I wholeheartedly recommend this book to all educators, parents, and professionals working with children with ADHD. It’s not just a book; it’s a companion in our journey to better understand and support our students with ADHD.

Some key insights from Barkey’s work to aid teachers in managing ADHD effectively in their classrooms:

Understanding ADHD

Firstly, Barkley stresses the importance of understanding ADHD, its symptoms, and its impact on a child’s learning abilities. ADHD isn’t merely about being inattentive or hyperactive. It can lead to issues with executive function, which can affect a child’s ability to organize tasks, manage time, control emotions, and complete tasks. As a teacher, a nuanced understanding of these challenges can foster empathy and patience, which are crucial in managing ADHD.

ADHD-friendly Classroom Environment

Barkley proposes that the physical environment of a classroom can significantly impact the learning experience of a student with ADHD. Simple modifications, like seating the student close to the teacher, away from distractions, can help. Also, having clear, visual instructions for tasks and rules, maintaining a neat, clutter-free environment, and ensuring a predictable routine can provide a sense of security and structure.

Behavioural Interventions

Behavioral interventions are central to Barkley’s strategies. These include positive reinforcement for good behavior and consistent, fair consequences for rule-breaking. Barkley suggests using token systems, where students earn tokens for good behavior that can be exchanged for rewards. He also underscores the importance of providing immediate feedback so students can connect their actions to consequences.

Academic Interventions

Academic interventions can also play a crucial role. As per Barkley, breaking down assignments into smaller, manageable parts can help students stay focused and not feel overwhelmed. Providing additional time for tasks, using assistive technology, and allowing movement breaks can also contribute to better academic outcomes.

Social Skills Training

Barkley also emphasizes social skills training for students with ADHD. Many children with ADHD may struggle with social interactions and may benefit from explicit teaching of social norms and expectations. Role-playing scenarios, providing feedback, and giving ample opportunities to practice these skills can be beneficial.

Collaboration with Parents and Professionals

Lastly, Barkley encourages teachers to foster strong relationships with parents and other professionals involved in the child’s care. Consistent communication regarding the child’s progress, concerns, and achievements can ensure everyone is on the same page. Moreover, seeking guidance from school psychologists, social workers, or special education teachers can provide additional strategies and resources.

Concluding thoughts…

Clearly, managing ADHD in schools is multifaceted and requires understanding, patience, and strategic interventions. Drawing on the insights provided by Dr. Russell Barkley, teachers can implement evidence-based methods to create a supportive and inclusive learning environment for students with ADHD. As Barkley rightly puts it, “Success with these students comes from a commitment to creating an environment that supports their unique learning needs, not from trying to make them fit into a one-size-fits-all model of education.”

One of the key responsibilities of schools is to make reasonable adjustments to their educational provision so as to provide increased access of learning for students with special educational needs and / or disabilities (SEND).  This is part of a broader obligation that schools have towards children and young adults: to eliminate discrimination, to improve equality of opportunity and to involve disabled people in decisions that might affect them. 

It is against this backdrop that a school employs a Learning Support Coordinator (also known as the SEN Coordinator, or SENCo for short) to support and coach teachers to develop high-quality teaching for children with SEND. 

In the UK, the Children and Families Act 2014 defines children as having special educational needs if they have a learning difficulty or disability that calls for special educational provision to be made for them.  Only those children for whom it is necessary to make provision that is additional to or different from that normally available to children of the same age therefore, should be considered to have special educational needs.  You can read about the most common special educational needs (SEN), along with their symptoms and strategies, in this article here.

From the outset, it must be pointed out that some students are wrongly identified as having SEN, when they are simply underachieving.  In these cases, it is higher expectations and better teaching quality, which would prevent such misidentification.  

The Role of the SENCo / Learning Support Coordinator

The SENCo is a leader, coordinator, strategic planner and an adviser to educational staff on meeting their responsibilities.  Within this remit, the challenge of working with SEN is that of constant change and the necessity to adapt to both the needs of students and also the ways of evaluating student progress.

Having identified a student as having a special educational need, the first response should be high-quality differentiated teaching targeted at the student’s area of weakness.  In this way, the SENCo has an important role in advising and supporting class teachers with planning suitable strategies. 

A Model for Inclusive Practice

According to Barton (1997, pp. 233), ‘Inclusive education is about responding to diversity, it is about listening to unfamiliar voices, being open to empowering all members and celebrating differences in dignified ways.’  Successful inclusion is as much to do with attitudes and values as it is resources.  

In order to facilitate inclusive education, schools need to have a good grasp of the ‘3 Waves’ model of teaching:

Wave 1 is High-quality teaching delivered through a well-differentiated curriculum that meets the needs of all students.

Wave 2 is for children who are underachieving, who are close to age-related expectations and will catch up with extra support such as booster classes. 

Wave 3 requires increasingly personalised intervention to maximise progress and minimise gaps in achievement, using additional interventions or support. 

The SENCo must support and coach teachers to make appropriate provision through high quality teaching according to each of these waves of intervention. This can mean:  

• Helping class and subject teachers to understand the principles of effective differentiation 

• Encouraging teachers and teaching assistants to use formative assessment practices to focus on meeting the needs of all students

• Ensuring all class and subject teachers raise any concerns with their SENCo that they may have where high-quality teaching is not meeting a child’s needs. 

• Helping teachers to plan for good behaviour and guiding them to deploy support staff effectively

Supporting class teachers in assessing the impact of interventions, undertaking further assessment where necessary and providing advice on additional strategies

Ultimately, the SENCo is aiming to enable teaching staff to find the solutions from within their own resources, rather than the SENCo being seen as a rescuer.  They do this by equipping teachers with a range of appropriate strategies to the meet the majority of students’ needs.  This enhances long-term high-quality teaching and avoids the ‘sticking plaster’ approach.

The purpose of this support and coaching that SENCos provide is to close, as far as possible, the attainment gap between students with SEN and their peers; to empower them to learn how to learn and to fulfil high expectations of their individual potential.

Important Considerations for the SENCo:

• Children with English as an Additional Language (EAL)

Children for whom English is not their first language may still be developing their bilingual ability.  At the early stages of this process, access to the curriculum can be a challenge.  These children do not necessarily have a learning difficulty – and, if they are at the early stages of learning English, they should not be considered as having a special educational need (SEN).  Indeed, schools should look carefully at all aspects of a child’s performance and learning, to establish whether lack of learning is due to limitations in their command of English, SEN or both.  In the process of identifying a student with a special educational need, it can be necessary to encourage the child to use their own language as well as English.  

• Involving Parents

Speaking to the child’s parents is essential.  It will be important to find out how long the child has been learning English and how the child functions using their home language. 

• Able or Gifted Students

Schools should have a separate policy for able and gifted students, and curriculum planning should take account of such students.  They should not be seen as having SEN.

Able or gifted students do, however, require a differentiated curriculum.  Their needs should be identified and met by providing opportunities for extension and problem-solving, and a challenging delivery of the curriculum.

• In-class or Pull-out?

There is some debate about how best to deliver additional provision, inside a busy classroom or as a pull-out support.  There is no right or wrong answer.  The needs of the child must be considered as well as where most effective learning will take place.  When making such decisions, it is important to consider other factors such as the child’s emotional and social well-being.  Sometimes, for example, withdrawal may affect the student’s self-image.  Younger children rarely mind being taken out in a group because their need for extra attention may be greater.  With older students, it is best to negotiate individually.   

Although children may well have some focused and time-limited teaching outside of the classroom for a specific purpose, they should not be separated from their teacher or peers at length.  Teachers must also make clear links between the learning that takes place inside and outside of the classroom, to reinforce inclusion of the child through the learning.

• Deployment of Support Staff

As a consequence of working with teaching assistants, one-to-one and in groups, often outside of the classroom, students with SEND can be increasingly separated from the teacher and their peers and can risk losing their curriculum entitlement.

• Training of Teaching Assistants    

Research into interactions of teachers and assistant teachers have revealed significant differences (Russel, Webster & Blatchford, 2013).  Teaching Assistants frequently gave too much help, provided answers to their own questions and most frequently used closed (rather than open) questions.  They tended to be more concerned with completion of tasks than whether or not students were learning anything new.  In fact, many students developed ‘learned helplessness’ and over-reliance on teaching assistants. 

Such evidence-based research must be kept in mind when training teaching assistants to ensure they are properly facilitating the learning of students with SEND.  This training involves teaching assistants using precise questioning, response and feedback skills (based on scaffolding), to help learners achieve learning goals and carry out tasks independently.

• Giving students a voice

Ofsted (2010) found that children and young people learn better when they have a say in deciding the support they need at any particular time, including when they like to be left alone.  SENCos often become skilled interpreters of students’ wishes and advocates for them.  

Taking account of the child’s feelings and preferences should start as young as possible.  This is in line with the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC)(Articles 12 and 13), stating that children and young people must be part of the decision-making process with regard to all aspects of their learning, in so far as this is possible.  After all, they have a unique knowledge of their needs and their perspectives should be taken into account.    

In the beginning, their views will be represented by those who work closely with them, mainly through observations in different settings (across a variety of activities with different adults). The observer can note levels of engagement in an activity, and signs of enjoyment or distress, and interaction with other children and adults.   

• Transition Periods

Transitions, for example, changing classes and year groups, can be difficult for some children.  The SENCo needs to take a strong lead in anticipating potential areas of difficulty in a particular transition and plan, with the child, parents and staff, as appropriate, how these barriers can be overcome.    

• The Management of SEN Records

The SENCo must compile the register of all students with SEND in collaboration with class and subject teachers who will alert the SENCo regarding any concerns about students.  This list can be a valuable tool to keep track of students from a SEND viewpoint and in terms of their wider outcomes.  Holding this information together in a single place, the ‘list’ becomes an organic tool that tracks information about students with SEND.  It is also a powerful strategic tool to help schools to monitor how inclusive their provision is, the progress students are making and the effectiveness of SEN resources that are additional to or different from the highly differentiated curriculum. 

• Keeping track of negative indicators

The SENCo must check that students with SEND are not over-represented in negative indicators such as exclusions, poor attendance and bullying.  If they are, these concerns should be raised with school leadership and management.

Concluding thoughts…

SENCos are change agents with significant roles to play in education.  In the process of facilitating teaching and learning of students with special educational needs and / or disabilities, SENCos must be reflective practitioners, able to hold meaningful discussions with colleagues, students and parents that influence school action.  By doing so, SENCOs can develop the attitudes and expertise of staff, strengthening their teaching practice and ethos, which will enable schools to be inclusive, engaging and effectives places for all students.     

References:

Barton, L. (1997) Inclusive education: Romantic, subversive or realistic? International Journal of Inclusive Education, 1(3), pp. 233-248.

Cowne, E., Frankl, C., Gerschel, L. (2019) The SENCo Handbook: Leading & Managing a Whole School Approach. 7th Edition.

Blatchford, P., Webster, R., and Russel, A. (2012b) Challenging the Role and Deployment of Teaching Assistants in Mainstream Schools – Final Report on the Effective Deployment of Teaching Assistants (EDTA) Project. London: Institute of Education.

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Progression in students’ understanding of mathematics is a fundamental focus for policy in many countries, where the relationship between mathematical standards and the quality of the workforce, which maintains economic competitiveness, forms part of the government’s rationale for wanting to improve numeracy standards.  Recurring periods of national concern about low standards of numeracy skills shown by Primary school pupils have become more urgent and more political in recent years with the publication of international comparisons of mathematical achievement (Street et al., 2005, pp.1).  In the UK, the National Curriculum offers a model for progression of learning in mathematics, and as with teaching across the developed world, this shows a focus in the way in which children learn as active problem solvers.  Implicitly, this defines the ethos of constructivist’ theories of how children learn and is based on the view that learners need to be actively engaged in constructing their own mathematical knowledge by seeking out meanings and making mental connections in an active manner.

Mathematics is both a body of established, recognised content and a process by which exploration and establishing takes place.  As Brown (1989, pp. 126) states, there is mathematics to know and mathematics to do.  Atkinson (1992, pp. 16) puts forward the view that the ability to solve problems is at the heart of mathematics.  In the context of these widely accepted definitions of mathematics, progression in children’s understanding of mathematics requires that in addition to having some knowledge of mathematical facts, concepts and skills, children are able to put their knowledge to work for the purpose of solving problems.  Engaging in the processes of mathematical activity enables children to assimilate the associated skills and knowledge.

The role of the teacher can be viewed as crucial for enabling children to understand mathematics.  As pointed out by Orton (1995, pp. 13), considerable emphasis in learning mathematics in recent times has been placed on the desirability of understanding rather than on being able to repeat remembered routines and demonstrate particular basic skills.  Progression then, can be seen as the development of a child’s ability and confidence to tackle the nature and purpose of mathematics whilst being able to explore and utilise a variety of mental strategies.  There are many factors that facilitate progression, including the features of effective teaching and the extent to which pupils need to be accommodated.

For teachers to best support children’s progression in their learning of mathematics, they must first plan lessons appropriately.  Logically, this planning should be underpinned by an understanding of how children think and learn.  As pointed out by Anghileri (1995, pp. 26), the new understandings which derive from all the current research into the processes by which children think and learn have clear and major implications for teaching mathematics to young children.  Above everything else, the main implication is that it is the teacher’s responsibility to nurture a positive attitude towards the subject of mathematics.  In my own lessons that I taught, I certainly found that the pupils were much more engaged in learning when they enjoyed the activities that were associated with learning.

For example, I would make regular use of the interactive whiteboard for the purpose of virtual activities, which I found were effective in getting the children actively interested in the topic.  Where possible, I made use of games that the children could play in pairs and groups.  For one particular lesson on fractions, decimal & percentage equivalences, I got the children playing a game of dominoes in groups in which the object was to match the correct equivalences. Interestingly, I tended to find that the use of games was not always conducive to forming a good basis for progression in children’s understanding, since as much time would be spent on understanding the actual game as it would on gleaning understanding of the mathematics involved.  They might well enjoy the activity of playing a game but the learning is often minimal.  In addition, I would say that the effectiveness of any game or ‘enjoyable activity’ is largely determined by the extent to which it places mathematical problems in meaningful real world contexts.

Indeed, making mathematics enjoyable should go hand in hand with making mathematics meaningful. This is the means by which anyone makes sense of
anything new with which they are faced, by relating it to what is already known.  As explained by Askew (1992, pp. 26) ‘children working in Brazilian street markets demonstrated a range of mathematical skills and knowledge, which they had problems demonstrating in formal tests’.  Arguably, activities used in classrooms need to mirror the sort of situations to which mathematics is actually applied.  This must mean that this way of human learning is vastly inhibited when one is presented with information or experience that does not relate at all to what is known.  Obviously, this has clear implications for the teaching of progression children’s understanding of mathematics and leads a skilful teacher to place mathematics into a context in which the children are familiar.

Research, however, has shown that while practical work and ‘real’ contexts can be useful, they need to be chosen carefully, and accompanied careful dialogue with the pupils to establish the extent of their understanding (Askew, 1992, pp. 11).  This has been confirmed by my own experience, as it is easy to spend too much time getting resources to fit a particular theme or context but which can detract from the learning outcome.  In order to get pupils really understanding mathematics, it is commonly agreed that pupils need to be supported in giving verbal explanations where they can talk through what they are doing, since this is an essential step in ‘going mental’.  Anghileri (1995, pp. 20) looks at the importance of children giving verbal explanations in terms of it being conducive to developing their cognitive awareness and control – that is, their ability to learn how to learn.  This means children should be encouraged to be reflective about their own processing, and to adapt and develop strategies, which put them in control.  In fact, this explains to a large extent the ethos behind the ‘mental and oral starter’.  It is clear across all year groups that mathematical language used by the teacher regularly draws on ‘open-targeted’ questions, requiring the children lo explain how they solved a problem.  Insofar as helping children to learn strategies for understanding and applying mathematics, the mathematical language and mental strategies used is, according to Anghileri, important for enabling children to cope with what is known as structural limitation – that is, their limited memory capacity.  This is achieved through children developing their selective attention, in which they sort out the relevant from the irrelevant, as well as developing their structural knowledge and processing strategies.  In this way, they learn to chunk information together and improve the efficiency with which they assimilate new information.

The guidance given, as defined in the National Numeracy Strategy Framework in the UK, recommends that teachers should use effective questioning
which allow children ‘thinking’ time, encourage explanation of methods and reasoning, and probe reasons for incorrect answers’.  Many studies have shown
that the style of questioning is related to pupil performance (Dillon, 1985,pp.112).  According to Dillon, the average differences in achievement of those classes whose teachers used demanding questions were, in some cases, equivalent to as much as one year’s learning.  Another significant aspect of a teacher’s questioning style is the time that the teacher pauses after asking a question, before either supplying it themselves, or moving onto a different pupil (Tokin, 1986, pp. 198).  In terms of progression, I have found that in the lower year groups teachers mainly make use of closed and closed targeted questions, as there is less of an emphasis on the method of working but in the upper year groups more use is made of open and open-targeted questions.  This makes sense because as children progress in their understanding of mathematics there becomes less of a need to recite patterns and more of a need to understand the actual working. Likewise, questioning is differentiated according to ability across a class as well as across year groups such that more open-ended style questioning in addition to the usual extension activities tends to be asked of the more able learners, particularly those who are ‘gifted and talented’.  My own observations have also revealed that simple statements made by the teacher help children to develop mental images, which in turn help them answer questions, e.g. ‘put that number in your head because that is the first number we are counting…’  Dillon (1985, pp. 114) suggests that when teachers make statements in order to provoke discussion rather than just ask questions, pupils can display more complex thought, deeper involvement, wider participation, greater interconnectedness, and richer inquiry.

It is in the application of this sort of teaching that common misconceptions can be addressed, exposed and discussed.  From my own lesson observations and in fact my own teaching, I observed many misconceptions being demonstrated by pupils during the course of a lesson.  It seems therefore, that to teach in way that avoids creating any misconceptions is not possible, and that many of these misconceptions will remain hidden unless the teacher makes specific efforts to uncover them.  A teacher’s response to dealing with a child’s mathematical error demands skill in diagnostic terms: different responses will be required depending on the nature and frequency of the error observed.  For example, in one particular Year 6 lesson I was teaching, I remember there were several pupils who were over-generalising a pattern that is true for whole numbers but not true for decimal numbers such as in the case of 0.12 < 0.117.  Skill is needed on the part of the teacher to correctly ascertain why the children are making such mistakes so that they can be appropriately resolved.  In the case of this particular lesson on Number, I could see the reason the children were making this mistake and was able to aid them in their understanding by speaking of 0.12 as ‘one tenth, two hundredths’ and 0.117 as ‘one tenth one hundredth & seven thousandths’.  The language used therefore, clearly is very important but of course, children still have their own individual learning styles and a teacher needs to be aware of this too in order to teach effectively

Psychological evidence from as early as the 1960s supports the possibility that individual preferences exist regarding how we like to learn.  In education, learners may sometimes be allocated to one of three types of learning style (Visual, Auditory or Kinaesthetic -VAK) (Kolb, 1984).  There is a considerable scarcity of quality research to support the value of identifying learning styles (Coffield et al, pp. 42,2004) but to give the notion to benefit of the doubt, one is led to the perspective that presenting learning material in a certain way can improve a pupil’s learning by suiting his preferred learning style.  It is for this reason that for the more visual learners in the classroom teachers can make use of a number line so that the children can see visually the place value underpinning numbers.  Likewise, to accommodate kinaesthetic learners number cubes can often be introduced into a lesson, enabling children to tangibly play with and observe the differences between units, tenths and hundredths.  Whatever method is used, effective teaching should emphasise that there is rarely a single ‘right’ method for solving a problem.  This allows for personalised learning to some extent, as the children can use methods they are most comfortable with.

The highest levels of achievement have been found to be in classes where teachers have a good knowledge of pupils’ achievement as well as a wide range of teaching approaches (Peterson et al., 1989, pp. 559).  Herein rests the rationale for assessment, which informs a teacher’s understanding of where a child is up to in his or her understanding of the subject matter and in so doing is fundamental for children’s progression.  There are widely recognised differences in the way in which high attainers and low attainers solve problems in mathematics.  It would seem that successful problem solvers have a range of strategies that they use intensively in problem solving, above and beyond the mathematical content that they know.  These would include, checking that they have understood the problem, planning their approach and monitoring their progress towards their goal.  Just as competence in early number relies on a blending of ‘knowing that’ and ‘figuring out’, improving competence at mathematical problem-solving involves increasing both the fund of mathematical knowledge and a range of general strategic, which have developed together (Askew, 1992, pp. 25).  In the context of the National Curriculum for Mathematics, this would suggest that learning outcomes, which focus on separate attainment targets are less likely to be successful than those that require pupils to integrate ideas from two attainment targets.  In terms of progression, this means that teaching needs to provide activities that focus on the links between different aspects of mathematics rather than treating them as separate topics and this is something I have always strived to achieve m my own teaching.

As assessment is able to inform a teacher’s planning, different children’s needs are accommodated.  This allows the teacher to adapt teaching according to the individual child and often is accompanied by setting arrangements.  Many schools employ setting for mathematics more than any other subject as an organisational device for coping with the range of competencies within a year group.  The popularity of setting for mathematics reflects recognition by teachers that mathematics spreads pupils out in terms of their competencies more than any subject in the school curriculum.  Furthermore, it is often the case that the lowest set consists of a smaller number of pupils than the others.  Haylock (1992, pp. 10) points out that this itself is recognition of the idiosyncratic nature of low attainment in mathematics and the consequent need for much individual attention by the teacher for those pupils in these lower sets.  Evidence presented by Allan (1991, pp. 61) states that mathematical attainment groupings can lead to some gains in attainment and although setting can be a contentious issue, there is little evidence to suggest pupils can be harmed by attainment grouping.  For students with special educational needs (SEN), Stuard (1990,pp. 21) makes the valid point that they should not be put in situations where they fail, but should be given opportunities to display what they can do, without recording or verbalising.  This should help them in their confidence, as they progress to the next level in their understanding of a concept or topic.

As well as using extra teaching staff to enhance learning objectives, ICT can be extremely effective.  Beardon (2003, pp. 157) refers to examples of how technology as a tool for learning can accommodate different learning styles, since allowing children to use computers as mathematical tools can encourage them to have an input into the direction of inquiries or investigations so that different interests, learning styles and preferences are taken into account.  The evidence presented by Bearden suggests that when the teacher permits real child-centred learning in this way, hidden abilities and creativity can be uncovered and mathematical concept development and thinking often go well beyond the expected outcome.  Additionally, by opening up communications with the wider learning community, the Internet has helped to radically change schools by giving them free access not only to information richer than any school library but also to other schools, expert advice and online resources.

In my personal experience of teaching, I frequently used the Internet as a means for obtaining useful ideas, worksheets and resources in which to aid children’s progression in their understanding of mathematics.  Any mention of technology within the context of mathematics should not overlook the impact of calculators.  The National Curriculum in the UK requires the use of the calculator in Key Stage 1 and Key Stage 2, as there are many benefits to the use of calculators.  For example, children of 6 or 7 can explore the ‘constant’ facility of the calculator, and derive patterns by counting on in twos or threes.  Stuard (1990, pp. 10) also makes the point that the use of calculates encourages children to work with large numbers, negative numbers and decimals, and to discuss these ideas with other children and adults.  I remember in a Year 5 lesson for example, giving pupils the chance to learn about the calculator’s memory function, which implicitly is highly useful for providing an effective means for enabling children to cope with the notion of ‘structural limitation’, discussed earlier. Calculators therefore provide a fundamental tool with which to both encourage and help children develop in their mathematical understanding.

Once resources such as ICT, calculators and teaching staff are appropriately in place, considerable effort is required by the teacher to then structure the class into groups, which will work effectively together.  This is because many studies have shown that pupils may be working in groups but not working as a group (Askew, 1992, pp.’36), which has serious implications for children’s progression.  Research presented by Webb (1984, pp. 34) suggests that the optimum grouping would comprise of ‘near’ mixed ability groups such as high and middle attainers or middle and low attainers as well as mixed sex groups, which include balanced numbers of boys and girls.  Particular focus on grouping arrangements needs to be made if there are children with English as an additional language (EAL) in the classroom.  This is because it is often the case according to Askew (1992, Pp. 61) that poor language skills – reading, writing, and speaking – are associated with low attainment in mathematics.  Given the point made by Brown (1989, pp. 40) that through carrying out work in a social setting, group work promotes learning, it is easy to see how children with EAL would benefit from working in mixed groups of native English speaking children.

Concluding thoughts…

To be involved in mathematics, at whatever level, requires both content and process, in order for the subject to be experienced in a balanced way.  For
children’s progression in their understanding of mathematics to be realised therefore, effective teaching is needed, which accommodates pupils with different needs and abilities.  This requires good planning, making use of exercises and activities children enjoy.  Enjoyment is most likely to be achieved if mathematics is placed in ‘real’ contexts that the children would have come across in their everyday experience and in this respect, it is good discipline for teachers of mathematics to evaluate tasks given to pupils against the criterion of usefulness.  However, a productive dialogue between the teacher and pupils in which the teacher uses statements and questions, which, as children progress, increasingly requires them to verbalise understanding of their working, should underpin this criteria.  It is in this way that misconceptions can be more frequently addressed, enabling children to progress in their conceptual development.  Both formative and summative assessment data should be used to record these misconceptions and inform planning in terms of where children are up to in their understanding of a topic or concept.  Teaching can then be appropriately differentiated to offer more personalised learning that meets a diverse range of needs and abilities, including’ children with SEN and children with EAL as well as Gifted & Talented children.  Careful attention needs to be paid by the teacher to the grouping arrangements to allow for maximum learning, since it is by such processes of social interaction and dialogue with more experienced learners that children learn to be reflective about their own processing and so begin to learn how to learn.  Likewise, effective uses of resources, including technology and teaching assistants is important for helping children further develop this meta-awareness and control, which ultimately, is fundamental in enabling children to progress in becoming increasingly independent learners.

References

Askew, M & William, D. (1995). Recent Research in Mathematics Education 5-16. OFSTED Reviews of Research.
Atkinson, S. (1992). Mathematics with Reason. Hodder & Stoughton.
Anghileri, J. (1995). Children’s Mathematical Thinking in the Primary Years. Cassell.
Brown, J. & Staines, J. (1989). Mathematics and the Primary Curriculum. NCET.
Campione, J. C.; Brown, A. L. & Connell, M. L. (1988). Metacognition: on the importance of understanding what you are doing. In R. I. Charles & E. A. Silver (Eds.), The teaching and assessing of mathematical problem solving: pp. 93-114.
Cockbum, A. (1999). Teaching Mathematics with Insight. Palmer Press.
Coffield et al, (2004) Learning styles and pedagogy in post-16 learning
Dillon, J T (1985). Using questions to foil discussion. Teaching and Teacher Education, 1 (2), pp. 109-121.
Hansen, A. (2005). Children’s Errors in Mathematics. Learning Matters.
Haylock, D (1991). Teaching Mathematics to Low Attainers, 8-12. Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd.
Hembree, R., Experiments and relational studies in problem solving: a meta-analysis. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 1992. 23(3): pp. 242-273.
Hughes, M (1986). Children and number: difficulties in learning mathematics. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Kolb, D.A. (1984), Expert ential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development
Orton, A., Frobisher, L. (1996). Insights into Teaching Mathematics. Cassell.
Peterson, P L; Carpenter, T & Fennema, E (1989). Teachers knowledge of students’ knowledge of mathematics problem solving: correlation and case analyses. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(4), pp. 558-569.
Shuard, H., Walsh, A., Goodwin, J., Worcester, V. (1990). Children, Mathematics and Learning. Simon & Schuster.
Street, B., Baker, D., Tomlin, A. (2005). Navigating Numeracies. Springer.
TokJn, K (1986). Effects of teacher wait time on discourse characteristics in mathematics and art classes. American Educational Research Journal, 23(2), pp. 191-200.
Way, J. and Beardon, T. (2003) tICT as a Tool for Learning – Where are we going?’, in Way, J. and
Beardon, T. (Eds.) ICT and Primary Mathematics. OU Press.
Webb, N. M. (1991). Task-related verbal interaction and mathematics learning in small groups.
Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 22(5): pp. 366-389.